Forms
Discover the innovative poetic structures that emerged in al-Andalus, blending classical Arabic forms with local influences to create new expressions.
Muwashshaḥa (موشّحة)
The Innovation of al-Andalus
The muwashshaḥa was one of the most distinctive innovations of Andalusian poetry. Unlike classical Arabic poetry with its monorhyme structure, the muwashshaḥa featured a complex strophic form with varying rhymes and a refrain (kharja).
Most notably, the kharja (خرجة) or "exit" of the poem was often written in the Romance dialect or colloquial Arabic, giving voice to different linguistic and cultural perspectives within a single poem.
Structure
The muwashshaḥa alternates between varying stanzas (bayt) and consistent common rhymes (qufl), culminating in the distinctive kharja.
Example
جادَكَ الغيثُ إذا الغيثُ همى
"May the rain cloud grant you its bounty, when the rain pours down..."
— Opening of a famous muwashshaḥa by Lisan al-Din Ibn al-Khatib (14th century, Granada)
Music & Performance
The muwashshaḥa was often set to music and performed in Andalusian courts. This musical tradition continues today in North Africa as Andalusian classical music.
Sample Muwashshaḥa Performance - موشح أحن شوقا
Click to play Andalusian music sample
Zajal (زجل)
Vernacular Poetry
The zajal was a strophic verse form written entirely in colloquial Andalusian Arabic rather than classical Arabic. It was a more popular form that reflected everyday language and experiences.
Ibn Quzman (died 1160) was the most celebrated master of the zajal form, writing poems that captured the vibrant multicultural life of Cordoba with wit and vivid imagery.
Structure
The zajal typically begins with a prelude (Matla), followed by stanzas (ghuṣn) with their own internal rhyme, before returning to the refrain rhyme pattern.
Example
ورزاذ دق يـــنـــــزل وشعاع الشمس يضـــــرب، فترى الواحـد يفـضـض وتـرى الآخـــــــــر يذهـب
"And a fine drizzle falls, as sunlight breaks through — you see one person drawing closer, and another drifting away."
— Zajal attributed to Ibn Quzman (12th century)
Cultural Significance
The zajal represents the multicultural nature of Andalusian society, with its blend of Arabic structure and local vernacular language. It was often performed at festivals and gatherings, accompanied by music, and its influence extends to later European troubadour poetry.
Classical Qaṣīda (قصيدة)
The Enduring Classical Form
While Andalusian poets innovated with forms like the muwashshaḥa and zajal, they also continued to compose in the classical qaṣīda form that had been the cornerstone of Arabic poetry since pre-Islamic times.
The qaṣīda maintained its prestige as the form of formal court poetry, elegies, and philosophical reflection. However, Andalusian poets often infused it with local imagery and themes.
Structure
The qaṣīda maintains a single rhyme (monorhyme) throughout the entire poem, which can extend to hundreds of lines. Each line (bayt) is divided into two hemistichs.
Example
أضحى التنائي بديلاً من تدانينا وناب عن طيب لقيانا تجافينا
"Our separation has replaced our closeness, and estrangement has taken the place of our sweet meetings."
— Opening of a famous qaṣīda by Ibn Zaydun
Andalusian Innovations
While maintaining the classical structure, Andalusian poets often broke with tradition in their qaṣīdas by focusing more directly on personal emotions, incorporating local Andalusian landscapes, and experimenting with shorter lengths than their Eastern counterparts.